inland towns, whose trade must be carried on by caravans and waggons.

These not only move slowly, but are subject to be interrupted by the

Romany and by the banditti, or persons who, for moral or political

crimes, have been banished from their homes.



It is in the cities that cluster around the great central lake that all

the life and civilization of our day are found; but there also begin

those wars and social convulsions which cause so much suffering. When

was the Peninsula at peace? and when was there not some mischief and

change brewing in the republics? When was there not a danger from the

northern mainland?



Until recent years there was little knowledge of, and scarcely any

direct commerce or intercourse between, the central part and the

districts either of the extreme west or the north, and it is only now

that the north and east are becoming open to us; for at the back of the

narrow circle or cultivated land, the belt about the Lake, there extend

immense forests in every direction, through which, till very lately, no

practicable way had been cut. Even in the more civilized central part it

is not to this day easy to travel, for at the barriers, as you approach

the territories of every prince, they demand your business and your

papers; nor even if you establish the fact that you are innocent of

designs against the State, shall you hardly enter without satisfying the

greed of the officials.



A fine is thus exacted at the gate of every province and kingdom, and

again at the gateways of the towns. The difference of the coinage, such

as it is, causes also great loss and trouble, for the money of one

kingdom (though passing current by command in that territory) is not

received at its nominal value in the next on account of the alloy it

contains. It is, indeed, in many kingdoms impossible to obtain sterling

money. Gold there is little or none anywhere, but silver is the standard

of exchange, and copper, bronze, and brass, sometimes tin, are the

metals with which the greater number of the people transact their

business.



Justice is corrupt, for where there is a king or a prince it depends on

the caprice of a tyrant, and where there is a republic upon the shout of

the crowd, so that many, if they think they may be put on trial, rather

than face the risk at once escape into the woods. The League, though

based ostensibly on principles the most exalted and beneficial to

humanity, is known to be perverted. The members sworn to honour and the

highest virtue are swayed by vile motives, political hatreds, and

private passions, and even by money.



Men for ever trample upon men, each pushing to the front; nor is there

safety in remaining in retirement, since such are accused of biding

their time and of occult designs. Though the population of these cities

all counted together is not equal to the population that once dwelt in a

single second-rate city of the ancients, yet how much greater are the

bitterness and the struggle!



Yet not content with the bloodshed they themselves cause, the tyrants

have called in the aid of mercenary soldiers to assist them. And, to

complete the disgrace, those republics which proclaim themselves the

very home of patriotic virtues, have resorted to the same means. Thus we

see English cities kept in awe by troops of Welshmen, Irish, and even

the western Scots, who swarm in the council-chambers of the republics,

and, opening the doors of the houses, help themselves to what they will.

This, too, in the face of the notorious fact that these nations have

sworn to be avenged upon us, that their vessels sail about the Lake

committing direful acts of piracy, and that twice already vast armies

have swept along threatening to entirely overwhelm the whole

commonwealth.



What infatuation to admit bands of these same men into the very

strongholds and the heart of the land! As if upon the approach of their

countrymen they would remain true to the oaths they have sworn for pay,

and not rather admit them with open arms. No blame can, upon a just

consideration, be attributed to either of these nations that endeavour

to oppress us. For, as they point out, the ancients from whom we are

descended held them in subjection many hundred years, and took from them

all their liberties.



Thus the Welsh, or, as they call themselves, the Cymry, say that the

whole island was once theirs, and is theirs still by right of

inheritance. They were the original people who possessed it ages before

the arrival of those whom we call the ancients. Though they were driven

into the mountains of the far distant west, they never forgot their

language, ceased their customs, or gave up their aspirations to recover

their own. This is now their aim, and until recently it seemed as if

they were about to accomplish it. For they held all that country

anciently called Cornwall, having crossed over the Severn, and marched

down the southern shore. The rich land of Devon, part of Dorset (all,

indeed, that is inhabited), and the most part of Somerset, acknowledged

their rule. Worcester and Hereford and Gloucester were theirs; I mean,

of course, those parts that are not forest.



Their outposts were pushed forward to the centre of Leicestershire, and

came down towards Oxford. But thereabouts they met with the forces of

which I will shortly speak. Then their vessels every summer sailing from

the Severn, came into the Lake, and, landing wherever there was an

opportunity, they destroyed all things and carried off the spoil. Is it

necessary to say more to demonstrate the madness which possesses those

princes and republics which, in order to support their own tyranny, have

invited bands of these men into their very palaces and forts?



As they approached near what was once Oxford and is now Sypolis, the

armies of the Cymry came into collision with another of our invaders,

and thus their forward course to the south was checked. The Irish, who

had hitherto abetted them, turned round to defend their own usurpations.

They, too, say that in conquering and despoiling my countrymen they are

fulfilling a divine vengeance. Their land of Ireland had been for

centuries ground down with an iron tyranny by our ancestors, who closed

their lips with a muzzle, and led them about with a bridle, as their

poets say. But now the hateful Saxons (for thus both they and the Welsh

designate us) are broken, and delivered over to them for their spoil.



It is not possible to deny many of the statements that they make, but

that should not prevent us from battling with might and main against the

threatened subjection. What crime can be greater than the admission of

such foreigners as the guards of our cities? Now the Irish have their

principal rendezvous and capital near to the ancient city of Chester,

which is upon the ocean, and at the very top and angle of Wales. This is

their great settlement, their magazine and rallying-place, and thence

their expeditions have proceeded. It is a convenient port, and well

opposite their native land, from which reinforcements continually

arrive, but the Welsh have ever looked upon their possession of it with

jealousy.



At the period when the Cymry had nearly penetrated to Sypolis or Oxford,

the Irish, on their part, had overrun all the cultivated and inhabited

country in a south and south-easterly line from Chester, through Rutland

to Norfolk and Suffolk, and even as far as Luton. They would have spread

to the north, but in that direction they were met by the Scots, who had

all Northumbria. When the Welsh came near Sypolis, the Irish awoke to

the position of affairs.



Sypolis is the largest and most important city upon the northern shore

of the Lake, and it is situated at the entrance to the neck of land that

stretches out to the straits. If the Welsh were once well posted there,

the Irish could never hope to find their way to the rich and cultivated

south, for it is just below Sypolis that the Lake contracts, and forms a

strait in one place but a furlong wide. The two forces thus came into

collision, and while they fought and destroyed each other, Sypolis was

saved. After which, finding they were evenly matched, the Irish withdrew

two days' march northwards, and the Cymry as far westwards.



But now the Irish, sailing round the outside of Wales, came likewise up

through the Red Rocks, and so into the Lake, and in their turn landing,

harassed the cities. Often Welsh and Irish vessels, intending to attack

the same place, have discerned each other approaching, and, turning from

their proposed action, have flown at each other's throats. The Scots

have not harassed us in the south much, being too far distant, and those

that wander hither come for pay, taking service as guards. They are,

indeed, the finest of men, and the hardiest to battle with. I had

forgotten to mention that it is possible the Irish might have pushed

back the Welsh, had not the kingdom of York suddenly reviving, by means

which shall be related, valiantly thrust out its masters, and fell upon

their rear.



But still these nations are always upon the verge and margin of our

world, and wait but an opportunity to rush in upon it. Our countrymen

groan under their yoke, and I say again that infamy should be the

portion of those rulers among us who have filled their fortified places

with mercenaries derived from such sources.



The land, too, is weak, because of the multitude of bondsmen. In the

provinces and kingdoms round about the Lake there is hardly a town where

the slaves do not outnumber the free as ten to one. The laws are framed

for the object of reducing the greater part of the people to servitude.

For every offence the punishment is slavery, and the offences are daily

artificially increased, that the wealth of the few in human beings may

grow with them. If a man in his hunger steal a loaf, he becomes a slave;

that is, it is proclaimed he must make good to the State the injury he

has done it, and must work out his trespass. This is not assessed as the

value of the loaf, nor supposed to be confined to the individual from

whom it was taken.



The theft is said to damage the State at large, because it corrupts the

morality of the commonwealth; it is as if the thief had stolen a loaf,

not from one, but from every member of the State. Restitution must,

therefore, be made to all, and the value of the loaf returned in labour

a thousandfold. The thief is the bondsman of the State. But as the State

cannot employ him, he is leased out to those who will pay into the

treasury of the prince the money equivalent to the labour he is capable

of performing. Thus, under cover of the highest morality, the greatest

iniquity is perpetrated. For the theft of a loaf, the man is reduced to

a slave; then his wife and children, unable to support themselves,

become a charge to the State, that is, they beg in the public ways.



This, too, forsooth, corrupts morality, and they likewise are seized and

leased out to any who like to take them. Nor can he or they ever become

free again, for they must repay to their proprietor the sum he gave for

them, and how can that be done, since they receive no wages? For

striking another, a man may be in the same way, as they term it,

forfeited to the State, and be sold to the highest bidder. A stout brass

wire is then twisted around his left wrist loosely, and the ends

soldered together. Then a bar of iron being put through, a half turn is

given to it, which forces the wire sharply against the arm, causing it

to fit tightly, often painfully, and forms a smaller ring at the

outside. By this smaller ring a score of bondsmen may be seen strung

together with a rope.



To speak disrespectfully of the prince or his council, or of the nobles,

or of religion, to go out of the precincts without permission, to trade

without license, to omit to salute the great, all these and a thousand

others are crimes deserving of the brazen bracelet. Were a man to study

all day what he must do, and what he must not do, to escape servitude,

it would not be possible for him to stir one step without becoming

forfeit! And yet they hypocritically say that these things are done for

the sake of public morality, and that there are not slaves (not

permitting the word to be used), and no man was ever sold.



It is, indeed, true that no man is sold in open market, he is leased

instead; and, by a refined hypocrisy, the owner of slaves cannot sell

them to another owner, but he can place them in the hands of the notary,

presenting them with their freedom, so far as he is concerned. The

notary, upon payment of a fine from the purchaser, transfers them to

him, and the larger part of the fine goes to the prince. Debt alone

under their laws must crowd the land with slaves, for, as wages are

scarcely known, a child from its birth is often declared to be in debt.

For its nourishment is drawn from its mother, and the wretched mother is

the wife of a retainer who is fed by his lord. To such a degree is this

tyranny carried! If any owe a penny, his doom is sealed; he becomes a

bondsman, and thus the estates of the nobles are full of men who work

during their whole lives for the profit of others. Thus, too, the woods

are filled with banditti, for those who find an opportunity never fail

to escape, notwithstanding the hunt that is invariably made for them,

and the cruel punishment that awaits recapture. And numbers, foreseeing

that they must become bondsmen, before they are proclaimed forfeit steal

away by night, and live as they may in the forests.



How, then, does any man remain free? Only by the favour of the nobles,

and only that he may amass wealth for them. The merchants, and those who

have license to trade by land or water, are all protected by some noble

house, to whom they pay heavily for permission to live in their own

houses. The principal tyrant is supported by the nobles, that they in

their turn may tyrannise over the merchants, and they again over all the

workmen of their shops and bazaars.



Over their own servants (for thus they call the slaves, that the word

itself may not be used), who work upon their estates, the nobles are

absolute masters, and may even hang them upon the nearest tree. And here

I cannot but remark how strange it is, first, that any man can remain a

slave rather than die; and secondly, how much stranger it is that any

other man, himself a slave, can be found to hunt down or to hang his

fellow; yet the tyrants never lack executioners. Their castles are

crowded with retainers who wreak their wills upon the defenceless. These

retainers do not wear the brazen bracelet; they are free. Are there,

then, no beggars? Yes, they sit at every corner, and about the gates of

the cities, asking for alms.



Though begging makes a man forfeit to the State, it is only when he has

thews and sinews, and can work. The diseased and aged, the helpless and

feeble, may break the law, and starve by the roadside, because it

profits no one to make them his slaves. And all these things are done in

the name of morality, and for the good of the human race, as they

constantly announce in their councils and parliaments.



There are two reasons why the mercenaries have been called in; first,

because the princes found the great nobles so powerful, and can keep

them in check only by the aid of these foreigners; and secondly, because

the number of the outlaws in the woods has become so great that the

nobles themselves are afraid lest their slaves should revolt, and, with

the aid of the outlaws, overcome them.



Now the mark of a noble is that he can read and write. When the ancients

were scattered, the remnant that was left behind was, for the most part,

the ignorant and the poor. But among them there was here and there a man

who possessed some little education and force of mind. At first there

was no order; but after thirty years or so, after a generation, some

order grew up, and these men, then become aged, were naturally chosen as

leaders. They had, indeed, no actual power then, no guards or armies;

but the common folk, who had no knowledge, came to them for decision of

their disputes, for advice what to do, for the pronouncement of some

form of marriage, for the keeping of some note of property, and to be

united against a mutual danger.



These men in turn taught their children to read and write, wishing that

some part of the wisdom of the ancients might be preserved. They

themselves wrote down what they knew, and these manuscripts, transmitted

to their children, were saved with care. Some of them remain to this

day. These children, growing to manhood, took more upon them, and

assumed higher authority as the past was forgotten, and the original

equality of all men lost in antiquity. The small enclosed farms of their

fathers became enlarged to estates, the estates became towns, and thus,

by degrees, the order of the nobility was formed. As they intermarried

only among themselves, they preserved a certain individuality. At this

day a noble is at once known, no matter how coarsely he may be dressed,

or how brutal his habits, by his delicacy of feature, his air of

command, even by his softness of skin and fineness of hair.



Still the art of reading and writing is scrupulously imparted to all

their legitimate offspring, and scrupulously confined to them alone. It

is true that they do not use it except on rare occasions when necessity

demands, being wholly given over to the chase, to war, and politics, but

they retain the knowledge. Indeed, were a noble to be known not to be

able to read and write, the prince would at once degrade him, and the

sentence would be upheld by the entire caste. No other but the nobles

are permitted to acquire these arts; if any attempt to do so, they are

enslaved and punished. But none do attempt; of what avail would it be to

them?



All knowledge is thus retained in the possession of the nobles; they do

not use it, but the physicians, for instance, who are famous, are so

because by favour of some baron, they have learned receipts in the

ancient manuscripts which have been mentioned. One virtue, and one only,

adorns this exclusive caste; they are courageous to the verge of

madness. I had almost omitted to state that the merchants know how to

read and write, having special license and permits to do so, without

which they may not correspond. There are few books, and still fewer to

read them; and these all in manuscript, for though the way to print is

not lost, it is not employed since no one wants books.